Isaac Brock

This article is about the British general. For the American musician, see Isaac Brock (musician). For the unverified supercentenarian, see Isaac Brock (supercentenarian).

Sir Isaac Brock KB
Portrait c. 1809, possibly by William Berczy
Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada
Acting
In office 1811 – 13 October 1812
Monarch	George III
Governor General	George Prévost
Acting for	Francis Gore
Succeeded by	Roger Hale Sheaffe
Personal details
Born	(1769-10-06)6 October 1769 St Peter Port, Guernsey
Died	13 October 1812(1812-10-13) (aged 43) Queenston, Upper Canada
Cause of death	Killed in action by a gunshot wound to the chest
Resting place	Brock's Monument, Queenston
Signature
Nickname	"The Hero of Upper Canada"
Military service
Allegiance	Great Britain (1785–1801) United Kingdom (1801–1812)
Branch/service	British Army
Years of service	1785–1812
Rank	Major-general
Commands	Upper Canada
Battles/wars	French Revolutionary Wars Battle of Alkmaar Battle of Copenhagen War of 1812 Siege of Detroit Battle of Queenston Heights †
Awards	Order of the Bath

Major General Sir Isaac Brock KB (6 October 1769 – 13 October 1812) was a British Army officer and colonial administrator from Guernsey. He is best remembered for his victory at the Siege of Detroit and his death at the Battle of Queenston Heights during the War of 1812.

Brock joined the army as a ensign in 1785. By 1797, he was a lieutenant colonel with the 49th Regiment of Foot. The regiment participated in the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland in 1799 and in the 1801 naval expedition against Copenhagen. In 1802, the 49th Regiment was assigned to garrison duty in British North America. Despite facing desertions and near-mutinies, Brock successfully commanded his regiment in Upper Canada (part of present-day Ontario) for several years. He was promoted to colonel in 1805 and brigadier general in 1808. In 1811 he was promoted to major general and given responsibility for defending Upper Canada against the threat of an American invasion. While many in Canada and Britain believed war could be averted, Brock began to ready the army and militia for what was to come. When the War of 1812 broke out, the populace was prepared, and quick victories at Fort Mackinac and Detroit temporarily thwarted American invasion attempts.

Brock's actions, particularly his success at Detroit, earned him accolades including a knighthood in the Order of the Bath and the sobriquet "The Hero of Upper Canada". His name is often linked with that of the Indigenous leader Tecumseh, although the two men collaborated in person only for a few days.

On October 13, 1812, the Americans crossed the Niagara River at Queenston and in the opening stages of the Battle of Queenston Heights captured a British artillery position on the high ground south of the village. Brock was shot and killed by an American sniper while leading a detachment of regulars and militia in an unsuccessful counterattack. Several hours later, British reinforcements from Niagara and Chippewa under Major General Roger Hale Sheaffe forced an American surrender.

Early life

St Peter Port, where Brock was born in 1769.

Brock was born at St Peter Port on the Channel Island of Guernsey. He was the eighth son of John Brock (1729–1777), a former midshipman in the Royal Navy. His mother was Elizabeth de Lisle, the daughter of Daniel de Lisle, the lieutenant-bailiff of Guernsey. The Brocks were an English family who had been established in Guernsey since the sixteenth century. Brock earned a reputation during his early education on Guernsey as an assiduous student, as well as an exceptional swimmer and boxer. At age eleven, he was sent to school in Southampton, and afterwards to Rotterdam where he became fluent in French.

Although his formal education ended when he was a teenager, Brock appreciated its importance. As an adult, he spent much time reading in order to broaden his knowledge. He read many works on military tactics and science, but also read ancient history and other less practical topics. At the time of his death, he owned a modest library of books, including classic works by Shakespeare, Voltaire, and Samuel Johnson.

Brock kept his reputation as an "unusually tall, robust" man throughout his life, with an adult height of about 6 ft 2 in (188 cm). Measurements taken from his uniform show that at his death he had a waist size of 47 inches (120 cm), while the inside brim of his hat measured 24 inches (61 cm) in circumference. Although Brock was noted as a handsome man who enjoyed the company of women, he never married.

Military service

Brock had a successful pre-war military career and a quick rise through the ranks, which many commented on at the time. Some credited luck, and others skill, in his rapid promotions. Brock had substantial portions of both on his way to prominence. Lacking special political connections, his ability to gain promotions even when Britain was at peace attests to his ambition, and his skills in recruiting men and organizing finances.

Early career

Brock joined the 8th (The King's) Regiment of Foot on 8 March 1785 with the rank of ensign,. As was common at the time, Brock's commission was purchased for him by his family. When Brock joined the 8th Foot, its commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel Arent DePeyster who had served in North America during the Revolutionary War as commandant of Fort Detroit, and who had substantial experience negotiating with Britain's Indigenous allies. On 16 January 1790, Brock purchased the rank of lieutenant and later that year raised his own company of men. As a result, he obtained a commission as captain of an Independent Company of Foot on 27 January 1791, but transferred to the 49th (Hertfordshire) Regiment of Foot on 15 June 1791.

At the time of Brock's transfer, the 49th Foot was stationed in Barbados in the West Indies. His nephew and biographer, Ferdinand Brock Tupper, asserts that shortly after Brock arrived in Barbados, a "professional dueller" forced a match on him. As the one being challenged Brock had his choice of terms, and he insisted that they use pistols. His friends were shocked as Brock was a large target and his opponent an expert shot. Brock, however, refused to change his mind. When the duellist arrived at the field, he asked Brock to decide how many paces they would take. Brock insisted that the duel would take place not at the usual range, but at handkerchief distance (i.e., close range). The duellist declined and was subsequently forced out of the regiment. This contributed to Brock's popularity and reputation among his fellow officers, as this duellist had a formidable reputation and was regarded as a bully.

Several months after Brock's arrival, the regiment was ordered to Jamaica. In 1793, Brock fell victim to yellow fever and became seriously ill. He did not fully recover until he returned home to Guernsey on leave. After regaining his strength, he became involved in recruiting efforts and the training of volunteer companies raised for home defence. Brock purchased his majority on 27 June 1795,. He rejoined the 49th Foot in the summer of 1796 when the regiment returned from the West Indies.

First command

Brock purchased the rank of lieutenant-colonel for £3,000 in October 1797. He served as the acting commanding officer of the 49th Foot for several months, and officially assumed command of the regiment on 22 March 1798 with the retirement of Lieutenant Colonel Frederick Keppel.

Landing of the English Troops at Calantsoog by Dirk Langendyck, 1799

In 1799, during the War of the Second Coalition, the 49th Foot was assigned to the Anglo-Russian expedition against the Batavian Republic. The 49th Foot were attached to Major General John Moore's 4th Brigade, part of the division commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Ralph Abercromby. The expedition faced minimal opposition when they landed at Callantsoog, south of Den Helder on 27 August. Brock first saw combat when the 49th Foot helped fend off a French attack on 10 September. On 19 September, the 4th Brigade captured Hoorn without a shot but withdraw from the city shortly thereafter.

On 2 October, the 49th Foot was actively involved in heavy combat at the Battle of Alkmaar. During the battle, the 4th Brigade served as the vanguard of a column that steadily proceeded south along the beach from Petten towards Egmond aan Zee. As it advanced, the column was increasing harassed by French sharpshooters hiding in patches of thick scrub. Eventually, the French blocked the advance by taking up a strong position in the sand dunes overlooking the beach. Moore's brigade was ordered to dislodge the French from their position with a bayonet charge. In a letter to his brother Brock wrote that he "ordered a charge, which I assure you was executed with the greatest gallantry, though not in the greatest order, as the nature of the ground admitted of none."

The engagement continued for several hours until the French finally gave way and the British were able to push forward. By the end of the day the 49th Foot had suffered 33 killed including 2 officers, 56 wounded, and 24 missing. Brock himself was injured during the fighting when he was hit in the throat by a spent musket ball. His neck cloth prevented a possibly fatal injury. Brock wrote, "I got knocked down shortly after the enemy began to retreat, but never quitted the field, and returned to my duty in less than half an hour."

Nelson Forcing the Passage of the Sound, 30 March 1801, prior to the Battle of Copenhagen by Robert Dodd.

The 49th Foot returned to Great Britain at the end of October, and garrisoned Jersey for several months beginning in July 1800. Early in 1801, the regiment was chosen to act as marines for a naval expedition against Denmark. The 49th Foot was tasked with assaulting the forts at Copenhagen, however, the outcome of the naval battle made such action unnecessary. Brock sailed aboard the 74-gun HMS Ganges commanded by Captain Thomas Fremantle, with the rest of the regiment distributed on seven other ships. One of these ships, HMS Monarch, suffered the highest number of fatalities during the battle, including eight members of the 49th Foot.

Transfer to Canada

Brock and the 49th Foot were back in England by September 1801. The following spring they were ordered to the Canadas. Brock arrived at Quebec on 25 August and then headed up the St Lawrence River to Montreal where the regiment would spend the winter. The following spring, the 49th Foot was assigned to garrison Fort York on Lake Ontario and Fort George on the Niagara River, as well as several smaller posts. Brock established his headquarters at York, the capital of Upper Canada.

In the summer of 1803, Brock was confronted with the desertion of several men, which was an ongoing problem at posts located close to the American border. Five men of the 49th Foot and three others had stolen a boat, fled across Lake Ontario, and landed near the mouth of the Niagara River. Despite having no jurisdiction on American soil, Brock set across the lake in pursuit. From Fort George he dispatched a party across the border and the fugitives were soon apprehended.

Mutiny

A short time later, Brock received a report from Fort George that some of the garrison were planning to confine their officers then cross over to the United States. Brock immediately boarded the schooner that had brought the message and headed to Fort George. According to Tupper, a hastily assembled honour guard formed to greet Brock's unexpected arrival. Alone on entering the fort, Brock ordered the sergeant of the guard to disarm and had him arrested. As it was the dinner hour, all the soldiers were in barracks. Brock ordered the drummers to call out the men. He ordered the first officer on the scene, Lieutenant Williams, to bring him a soldier suspected of being one of the mutiny's ringleaders. Ten other suspected mutineers were also taken prisoner.

Brock sent the twelve mutineers and the eight deserters to Quebec for court martial. Nine were transported for life and seven were sentenced to death. The mutineers testified that they were forced to such measures by the rigid discipline imposed by Lieutenant Colonel Roger Hale Shaffe, who commanded at Fort George. They said if they had served under Brock's command, they would never have taken such action. Subsequently, Brock was ordered to move his headquarters to Fort George. In a letter, Brock later expressed regret that the conspirators had been executed, as some had been men who had been with him in Holland and at Copenhagen.

Pre-war preparations

Brock went on leave to Guernsey in October 1805, and received a promotion to colonel that same month.. When he arrived back in Canada in September 1806, he found himself in temporary command of all British forces in Upper and Lower Canada.

By 1806, the United States had becoming increasingly hostile to the United Kingdom. Relations between the two nations continued to deteriorate until the Americans declared war in 1812. Many in the United States were upset by British violations of American sovereignty and the restriction of trade during the Napoleonic Wars. Their grievances included the searching of American ships for deserters, the impressment of American sailors by the Royal Navy, and the naval blockade of French and allied ports. In response to incidents such as the Chesapeake–Leopard affair, an influential group of American congressmen known as the War Hawks began to lobby for an invasion of Canada to punish the British. At the same time there was growing sentiment that the British were supporting Indigenous attacks on frontier settlements. Finally, the War Hawks were convinced that the inhabitants of Upper and Lower Canada would rise up in support of any invasion. Shortly after war was declared, Thomas Jefferson wrote, conquering Canada would be "a mere matter of marching".

In response to this emerging threat, Brock moved quickly to bolster Canadian defences. He strengthened the fortifications of Quebec by reconstructing the city's western wall and creating an elevated artillery battery. He reorganized and strengthened the Provincial Marine, creating a naval force capable of giving the British command of the Great Lakes. Brock's appropriation of civilian land and labour for military use, however, brought him into conflict with civil authorities including Thomas Dunn, the Lieutenant Governor of Lower Canada.

Brock remained acting commander-in-chief of all British forces in Upper and Lower Canada until the arrival of Sir James Henry Craig , the newly appointed Governor General of British North America. In March 1808, Craig moved Brock to Montreal and appointed him a brigadier. Brock remained in Lower Canada until the summer of 1810 when he was given command of all British forces in Upper Canada. In June 1811 he was promoted to major general, and in October of that year was appointed administrator of Upper Canada when Francis Gore, the Lieutenant Governor, went to England on leave. Brock was now both the senior military officer in Upper Canada and the leader of its civil government.

As Upper Canada's administrator, Brock made a series of changes to prepare for war. He convinced the Legislative Assembly to amend the 1808 Militia Act to allow for the formation of flank companies for each militia battalion, which were to train for six days every month. He continued the strengthening and reinforcing of Upper Canada's fortifications, and ensured that the militia was adequately equipped. He began seeking out Indigenous leaders, such as the Shawnee chief Tecumseh and the Mohawk chief John Norton, hoping to secure alliances in the event of war against the Americans. Although conventional wisdom held that Upper Canada would fall quickly in the event of an invasion, Brock pursued these strategies to give the colony a fighting chance, however, his attempt to have the Legislative Assembly partially suspend habeus corpus failed.

In the years immediately prior to the War of 1812, Brock had occasionally petitioned for a posting to Spain or Portugal. In early 1812, when he was finally offered a position in Europe, Brock declined the offer, believing that he now had a duty to defend Upper Canada against the United States.

War of 1812

Mackinac and Detroit

Main article: Siege of Detroit

Governor General Sir George Prevost, whose approach to the war conflicted with Brock's

The United States declared war on Britain on 18 June 1812. Despite his preparations, Brock remained deeply concerned about his ability to defend Upper Canada. Besides the militia flank companies, he had at his disposal only one British regular infantry regiment, a company of the Royal Artillery, and detachments from the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles and the 10th Royal Veteran Battalion. These were dispersed among several widely separated posts. Brock's advantage was that the armed vessels of the Provincial Marine controlled the lakes, which allowed him to move troops rapidly between threatened points.

When news of the outbreak of war reached him, Brock dispatched noted voyageur and fur trader William McKay with orders for Captain Charles Roberts at the British outpost of St. Joseph Island on Lake Huron. Roberts was given the discretion to maintain a defensive posture or attack the nearby American outpost at Fort Mackinac. Roberts immediately launched an attack with a scratch force of regulars, fur traders and Indigenous warriors. The American garrison, unaware that war had been declared, were taken by surprise and surrendered on 17 July. This easy victory encouraged many Indigenous tribes in the Michigan Territory, who had previously been neutral or undecided, to give their support to the British. They hoped that by helping the British they could prevent American settlers from pushing further into their traditional territories.

Brock felt he needed to take further action but was hampered by Governor General Sir George Prevost, who had replaced Craig late in 1811. Prevost's orders from the British government, and his own inclinations, were to emphasize defence. Prevost kept the bulk of his forces in Lower Canada to protect Quebec, and opposed any attack into United States. In addition, Brock believed that he was handicapped by the inertia and defeatism of legislators, civil servants and the general public. In a letter to Edward Baynes, Prevost's adjutant-general, Brock wrote:

My situation is most critical, not from anything the enemy can do, but from the disposition of the people – The Population, believe me is essentially bad – A full belief possesses them that this Province must inevitably succumb – This Prepossession is fatal to every exertion – Legislators, Magistrates, Militia Officers, all, have imbibed the idea, and are so sluggish and indifferent in all their respective offices that the artful and active scoundrel is allowed to parade the Country without interruption, and commit all imaginable mischief... What a change an additional regiment would make in this part of the Province! Most of the people have lost all confidence – I however speak loud and look big.

On 12 July, an American army under Brigadier General William Hull crossed the Detroit River and occupied Sandwich (later known as Windsor). Hull failed to advance on Fort Amherstburg at the mouth of the river. With his supply line under attack by the Provincial Marine and Indigenous forces led by Tecumseh, he withdrew back to Detroit on 8 August. This gave Brock the excuse he needed to disregard Prevost's instructions. After finally obtaining support from the Legislative Assembly for his measures to defend Upper Canada, Brock prorogued parliament and set out on 6 August for Fort Amherstburg with 50 regulars of the 41st Foot and 150 volunteers from the York Militia (the "York Volunteers"). He was later joined by detachments of the Lincoln, Oxford, and Norfolk militias, and by John Norton with 60 warriors from the Six Nations of the Grand River. Travelling in boats along the north shore of Lake Erie in inclement weather, Brock reached Fort Amherstburg on 13 August.

Brock met Tecumseh at Fort Amherstburg and quickly established a rapport with the Shawnee leader.

At Fort Amherstburg, Brock met Tecumseh, and was immediately impressed. Brock read the American dispatches and correspondence that Tecumseh had intercepted, and concluded that Hull was a timid commander and deathly afraid of the Indigenous warriors. He also learned that the American forces at Detroit were demoralized and short of rations. Against the advice of some of his officers, Brock immediately prepared to launch an attack on Detroit:

Some say that nothing could be more desperate than the measure, but I answer that the state of the Province admitted of nothing but desperate remedies. I got possession of the letters my antagonist addressed to the Secretary at War, and also of the sentiments which hundreds of his army uttered to their friends. Confidence in the General was gone, and evident despondency prevailed throughout. I have succeeded beyond expectation. I crossed the river contrary to the opinion of Cols. Procter, St. George etc.; it is therefore no wonder that envy should attribute to good fortune what in justice to my own discernment, I must say, proceeded from a cool calculation of the pours and contres.

Brock knew that he was outnumbered. Including the regulars from Fort Amherstburg and the Essex militia, Brock had a force of 330 regulars and 400 militia, as well as two Provincial Marine vessels, five field guns, and a few hundred Indigenous warriors. Meanwhile, Hull had close to 600 regulars, 1600 Ohio militia and numerous artillery pieces.

Brock relied on a number of tricks to intimidate Hull. On 15 August he sent his aide-de-camp, Captain John Glegg, under a flag of truce to Fort Detroit with a letter demanding Hull's immediate surrender. In the letter, Brock warned that he would not be able to restrain his Indigenous allies once the attack started:

It is far from my inclination to join in a war of extermination, but you must be aware that the numerous body of Indians who have attached themselves to my troops will be beyond my control the moment the contest commences.

Hull refused, replying, “I am prepared to meet any force which may be at your disposal.” Brock ordered the artillery he had positioned at Sandwich opposite Detroit to open fire. Hull returned fire without effect, and the guns of both sides fell silent as darkness fell. Tecumseh and his warriors crossed the river that night and moved through the woods north of the fort giving the impression of much larger numbers. Brock crossed shortly after sunrise with the regulars and militia. He had the militia wear cast-off red tunics supplied by the regulars, making it appear from a distance as if his force consisted entirely of professional soldiers. The artillery at Sandwich resumed their bombardment as Brock crossed the river, joined by the guns of the Provincial Marine vessels.

Hull surrendered Detroit to Brock on 16 August

Following his initial refusal to surrender, Hull had become increasingly despondent. He was responsible not only for his soldiers but also for hundreds of civilians including his daughter and grandchildren. He lack confidence in his men, believed he was outnumbered, and above all feared a massacre should he lose. Despite having a strong defensive position, Hull ordered his artillery not to return fire. After several officers were killed during the British bombardment, Hull decided that surrender was the only option.

Hull and his regulars went sent to Quebec as prisoners of the war, while the militia was paroled and sent home. Hull was later exchanged, but faced a court martial in January 1814, charged with treason, cowardice and neglect of duty. Hull is reported to have said: "I have done what my conscience directed — I have saved Detroit and the Territory from the horrors of an Indian massacre." Hull was found guilty and sentenced to death, but his sentence was commuted by President James Madison.

Hull's surrender was a "colossal disaster for the United States." The fall of Detroit damaged American morale and neutralized a significant threat to Upper Canada. At the same time, the victory boosted the morale of Upper Canada's regulars, militia and civilian population. Brock captured a considerable amount of supplies at Detroit including 2,500 muskets, 500 rifles, 33 artillery pieces and 69 barrels of gunpowder. Also taken were the colours of the 4th Infantry Regiment, and the armed brig Adams which was turned over to the Provincial Marine and renamed HMS Detroit. Under prize regulations, Brock was awarded £214 while each of his men was awarded at least £4.

The victory solidified the support of Tecumseh and other Indigenous leaders, who saw Brock's actions as both a sign of competence and a willingness to take action. Tecumseh trusted and respected Brock, and is reported to have proclaimed, "This is a man," after meeting the general for the first time. Although Brock's correspondence indicates a certain amount of paternal condescension for the First Nations, he seems to have regarded Tecumseh very highly saying, "a more sagacious or a more gallant warrior does not I believe exist". Brock made a number of commitments to the Shawnee leader. He promised not to broker a peace treaty with the Americans without addressing Tecumseh's vision of an independent homeland. There is no evidence Brock negotiated in bad faith. His personal integrity and respect for Indigenous peoples suggests that if he had lived he would have kept his word to the Shawnee leader.

Brock hoped to maintain momentum by crossing the Niagara River and capturing Fort Niagara, but was thwarted by the negotiation of an armistice between Prevost and American Major General Henry Dearborn. The armistice gave the Americans time to reinforce their positions along the river in preparation for an attack against Upper Canada later that year. Brock also received reinforcements: six companies of the 49th Foot, two companies of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles, and 50 men of the 10th Royal Veterans.

News of Brock's victory reached the United Kingdom in early October and was published in the London Gazette on 6 Oct 1812. Four days later, the captured colors of the 4th Infantry Regiment were presented to the Prince Regent who appointed Brock an "Extra Knight of the Most Honourable Military Order of the Bath."

Death at Battle of Queenston Heights

Main article: Battle of Queenston Heights

Meanwhile, American general Stephen Van Rensselaer III, a Federalist political appointee, in command of a sizable army near Lewiston, was pressured by the American president to invade. Although Van Rensselaer had severe doubts about the quality of his troops, he had no choice but to attack. He was an inexperienced militia general, and not trusted by the majority of regular army troops. In the early morning of 13 October 1812, he attempted to cross the Niagara River, leading to the Battle of Queenston Heights. Despite heavy fire from British artillery, the first wave of Americans (under Captain John E. Wool) managed to land, and then follow a fishermen's path up to the heights. From this point, they attacked and routed the British artillery. Brock had arrived from nearby Fort George and moved up to the artillery battery to gain a better view only minutes before Wool attacked. He, his aides, and the gunners were forced to beat a hasty retreat, leading their horses down the steep slope.

General Brock leading the charge. Fearing the Americans would move the rest of their soldiers, Brock ordered an immediate attack on the American position.

Fearing that the Americans would move the rest of their troops across the river, Brock ordered an immediate attack on their position. True to his philosophy of never ordering men where he would not lead them, he personally led the charge on foot. Brock's charge was made by Dennis' and Williams' two companies of the 49th and two companies of militia. The assault was halted by heavy fire and as he noticed unwounded men dropping to the rear, Brock shouted angrily that "This is the first time I have ever seen the 49th turn their backs! Surely the heroes of Egmont will not tarnish their record!" At this rebuke, the ranks promptly closed up and were joined by two more companies of militia, those of Cameron and Heward. Brock saw that the militia supports were lagging behind at the foot of the hill and ordered one of his Provincial aides-de-camp, Lieutenant Colonel John Macdonell, to "Push on the York Volunteers," while he led his own party to the right, presumably intending to join his party with that of Williams' detachment, who were beginning to make progress on that flank.

Brock was struck in the wrist of his sword arm by a musket ball but continued to press home the attack. His height and energetic gestures, together with his officer's uniform and a gaudy sash given to him eight weeks earlier by Tecumseh after the siege of Detroit, made him a conspicuous target. An unknown American stepped forward from a thicket and fired at a range of barely fifty yards. The musketball struck Brock in the chest and he fell. His last words have been reported as "Push on, brave York Volunteers" (in reference to a group of the militia Brock favoured) or "Push on, don't mind me" or Surgite! (Latin for "rise" or "push on"  – now used as a motto by Brock University), and even "a request that his fall might not be noticed or prevent the advance of his brave troops, adding a wish, which could not be distinctly understood, that some token of remembrance should be transmitted to his sister." These accounts are considered unlikely, since he was not in the company of the York Volunteers but regular soldiers at the time and it is also reported that Brock died almost immediately without speaking, and the hole in his uniform suggests that the bullet entered his heart. His body was carried from the field and secreted in a nearby house at the corner of Queenston and Partition streets, diagonally opposite that of Laura Secord.

"Push on, brave York volunteers!" shouts Brock, who is shown mortally wounded at the lower right of the picture.

Following the death of Brock, Lieutenant-Colonel John Macdonell became the senior officer. A lawyer by trade and having little military experience, Macdonell led a second attempt to retake the redan. With Williams' men of the 49th starting from brush to the right of the line near the escarpment and Macdonell's anchoring the left, the force of between 70 and 80 men (more than half of whom were militia) advanced toward the redan. Wool had been reinforced by more troops who had just made their way up the path to the top of the Heights, and Macdonell faced some four hundred troops. During the charge, it is reported that the 49th used "Revenge the General" as a battle cry.

Despite the disadvantage in numbers as well as attacking a fixed position, Williams' and Macdonell's small force was driving the opposing force to the edge of the gorge on which the redan was situated, and seemed on the verge of success before the Americans were able to regroup and stand firm. The momentum of the battle turned when a musket ball hit Macdonell's mount (causing it to rear and twist around) and another shot hit him in the small of the back, causing him to fall from the horse. He was removed from the battlefield and died from his injuries early the next day. Captain Williams was laid low by a wound to the head, and Dennis by a severe wound to the thigh (although he continued to lead his detachment throughout the action). Carrying Macdonnell and the body of Brock, the British fell back through Queenston to Durham's Farm, a mile north near Vrooman's Point.

In the afternoon, Sheaffe arrived on the battlefield with reinforcements and took command of the British forces. In sharp contrast to his predecessors' direct attacks, Sheaffe took a more cautious approach. This ultimately proved successful, leading to a total victory over the Americans.

Burial

The cenotaph, Queenston Heights, erected near the spot where Brock fell

After the battle, Sheaffe and his staff decided to entrust the funeral arrangements to Captain John Glegg, who had served with Brock for many years. On 16 October, a funeral procession for Brock and Colonel Macdonell went from Government House to Fort George, with soldiers from the British Army, the colonial militia, and First Nations warriors on either side of the route. The caskets were lowered into a freshly dug grave at the northeast corner of Fort George. The British fired a twenty-one gun salute in three salvos, in a gesture of respect. Later that day, the American garrison at Fort Niagara respectfully fired a similar salute. Over five thousand people attended the funeral, a remarkable number given the limited population of Upper Canada at that time.

Brock's remains are interred at Brock's Monument, in Queenston, Ontario.

A small cairn at the foot of the Niagara Escarpment marks the spot where Brock fell. In 1824, Brock's and Macdonell's remains were moved into Brock's Monument, which overlooked the Queenston Heights. That original monument was bombed and heavily damaged in 1840. (This action was reputedly by Irish-Canadian terrorist Benjamin Lett although a subsequent Assize failed to confirm this.). It was replaced by a larger structure 185 feet (56 m) high, built at public expense, that still stands. Brock's remains were reinterred inside the new Monument on 13 October 1853. An inscription reads: "Upper Canada has dedicated this monument to the memory of the late Major-General Isaac Brock, K.B. provisional lieutenant-governor and commander of the forces in the province whose remains are deposited in the vault beneath. Opposing the invading enemy he fell in action near these heights on 13 October 1812, in the forty-third year of his age. Revered and lamented by the people whom he governed and deplored by the sovereign to whose services his life had been devoted."

Legacy

On British leadership

Posthumous portrait, c. 1883, by George Theodore Berthon

British military leadership, which had been decisive up to Brock's death, suffered a blow with his loss. His direct successor, Major-General Sheaffe, although successful in his approach at Queenston Heights, was never able to live up to Brock's reputation. He was criticised by many, including John Strachan, for his retreat at the Battle of York, and was shortly after recalled to England, where he continued a successful, if not brilliant, military career.

Brock's successor at Detroit, however, fared much worse. Colonel Henry Procter faced an attack from a resurrected American Army of the Northwest under future President William Henry Harrison. Harrison set out to retake Detroit, but a detachment of his army was defeated at Frenchtown on 22 January 1813. Procter, displaying poor judgement, left the prisoners in the custody of his First Nations allies, who proceeded to execute an indeterminate number of them. Subsequent American victories allowed Harrison to attempt another invasion of Canada, which led to the Battle of the Thames on 5 October 1813. After a successful American charge, Procter's forces turned and fled, leaving Tecumseh and his American Indian troops to fight alone. They fought on, eventually being defeated. Perhaps of more importance to the British, at this battle Tecumseh died, and their alliance with the American Indians effectively ended.

As for Governor General Prevost, who often clashed with Brock, he remained in command of all British forces until after the Battle of Plattsburgh, in 1814. The battle was intended to be a joint naval/infantry attack, but Prevost did not commit his forces until after the naval battle had nearly ended. When he finally did attack, his forces proved unable to cross the Saranac River bridge, which was held by a small group of American regulars under the command of the recently promoted John E. Wool. Despite a heavy advantage in manpower, Prevost finally retreated upon hearing of the failure of the naval attack. For his failure at Plattsburgh, Prevost was recalled to England to face an inquiry, and a naval court martial determined that the blame for the loss at Plattsburgh primarily rested with Prevost. Prevost's health failed him, and he died in early 1816.

In Britain

Memorial for Brock at St. Paul's Cathedral.

Although Brock's achievements in Canada were overshadowed by larger-scale fighting in Europe, his death was still widely noted, particularly in Guernsey. In London, he is remembered at a memorial in St Paul's Cathedral. This was paid for by £1575 voted by the House of Commons, which also granted pensions of £200 to each of his four surviving brothers. For his actions in the capture of Detroit, Brock was appointed a Knight Companion of the Order of the Bath (KB) on 10 October 1812. He died at the Battle of Queenston Heights before learning of his knighthood.

As a mark of esteem, the Prince Regent made a special grant to allow the heraldic supporters that would have been incorporated into his coat of arms if he had lived, to be incorporated into the arms of Brock's father's descendants, and on monuments raised in Brock's memory.

A British naval vessel named in his honour, HMS Sir Isaac Brock, was destroyed at the Battle of York while under construction to prevent it falling into enemy hands. The Regimental Depot of the 49th of Foot (later the Royal Berkshire Regiment), was established at Reading and named Brock Barracks in his memory in 1934. It is now used as a cadets and reserve infantry centre.

In Canada

Canadians regard Brock as one of their greatest military heroes. He was voted number 28 on the television show The Greatest Canadian, although he was not born or naturalised as a Canadian.

Busts of Isaac Brock at Valiants Memorial in Ottawa (left), and in Brockville, Ontario (right).

Although many Canadians have come to view Brock as one of their own, Brock never really felt at home in Canada. On the whole, he viewed the country as a backwater, and earnestly wished to return to Europe to fight against Napoleon. Brock mistrusted the Canadian colonists, many of whom he suspected of being American sympathisers, and he was reluctant to arm them indiscriminately to help defend the colonies. He favoured expansion of volunteer forces which could be trained and supervised, as well as the use of British regulars and Tecumseh's warriors.

Since his death, several legends and myths about Brock have arisen. In 1908, the story of Brock's betrothal to Sophia Shaw, the daughter of General Æneas Shaw, was first published. There is no supporting evidence for the claim and most biographers consider it apocryphal. A legend about Brock's horse Alfred was first published in 1859. The horse was supposedly shot and killed during the battle while being ridden by Macdonell, and it is commemorated in a monument erected in 1976 in Queenston near the cairn marking the spot where Brock fell. But little evidence supports this account. The General's horse "fully caparisoned, led by four Grooms," is listed as preceding the coffin at the General's interment at Fort George.

In 1816, an unknown company issued a series of private half-penny tokens honouring Brock with the title "The Hero of Upper Canada". Private copper tokens became common in Canada due to initial distrust of "army bills", paper notes issued by Brock when there was a currency shortage caused by economic growth.

Statue of Brock at Brock University, a post-secondary institution also named after the general

Brockville and Brock in Ontario, Brock in Saskatchewan, General Isaac Brock Parkway on Highway 405 and Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario, are all named in tribute to Brock. Schools named in his honour include one in Winnipeg, and public schools in Toronto, Guelph, Hamilton, London, Vancouver, and Windsor, Ontario. An Ontario Historical Plaque was erected by the province to commemorate Major-General Sir Isaac Brock's role in Ontario's heritage. The section of Spadina Avenue south of Queen Street in Toronto was once named Brock Street in his honour.

In September 2012, the Royal Canadian Mint issued a .99999 pure gold coin with a face value of 350 dollars to honor the bicentenary of Brock's death. The reverse design was taken from a half-penny token issued in 1816 as a memorial to Brock. In addition, there have been quarters that have been released, one with a coloured maple leaf and the other with a frosted maple leaf.

The Bathurst Street Bridge was renamed the Sir Isaac Brock Bridge by the City of Toronto at the suggestion of the Friends of Fort York.

In Guernsey

Brock's childhood home on High Street, St Peter Port, Guernsey still stands, and is marked with a memorial plaque. A memorial, paid for by Canada, is fitted into the side of the Town Church, the parish church of St Peter Port.

Brock University in Ontario provides scholarships to Guernsey students who achieve sufficiently high grades. In 1969, the Guernsey Post Office issued postage stamps to commemorate his life and achievements.

Notes and references

References

• Berton, Pierre (1980). The Invasion of Canada, Volume 1, 1812–1813. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-316-09216-9.
• Burroughs, Peter (1983). "Prevost, Sir George". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. V (1801–1820) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
• Collins, Gilbert (2006). Guidebook to the Historic Sites of the War of 1812 (2nd ed.). Toronto: Dundurn. ISBN 978-1-55002-626-9.
• Cruikshank, Ernest A. (1964). "The Battle of Queenston Heights". In Zaslow, Morris (ed.). The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812. Toronto: MacMillan. OCLC 480289.
• Fredriksen, John C. (2001). "Isaac Brock". America's Military Adversaries. Sant Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
• Garrard, Graeme (October 2012). "The Saviour of Canada". History Today. History Today Ltd. Retrieved 6 October 2022.
• "Isaac Brock – Saviour of Canada". Historica Canadiana. 27 November 2006. Retrieved 16 July 2008.
• Hitsman, J. MacKay; Graves, Donald E.; Prevost, Sir Christopher (2000). The Incredible War of 1812: A Military History. Toronto: Robin Brass Studio. ISBN 1-896941-13-3.
• Latimer, Jon (2007). 1812: War with America. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02584-4.
• Kosche, Ludwig (Summer 1985). "Contemporary portraits of Isaac Brock: An analysis". Archivaria. 1 (20): 22–66. Retrieved 3 August 2015.
• Malcomson, Robert (2003). A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812. Toronto: Robin Brass Studio. ISBN 1-896941-33-8.
• Malcomson, Robert (2004). "Picturing Isaac Brock: heroes attract legends like magnets attract iron. But what is really true about Isaac Brock, the saviour of Upper Canada?". The Beaver: Exploring Canada's History. 84 (5): 23–25. Retrieved 1 March 2025.
• Nursey, Walter R. (1908). The Story of Isaac Brock. (published online by Project Gutenberg). Toronto: William Briggs.
• Riley, Jonathon (2011). A Matter of Honour: The Life, Campaigns and Generalship of Isaac Brock. Midpoint Trade Books. ISBN 978-1896941653.
• Stacey, C. P. (1983). "Brock, Sir Isaac". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. V (1801–1820) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 16 July 2008.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
• Stacey, C. P. (1964). "The Defence of Upper Canada". In Zaslow, Morris (ed.). The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812. Toronto: MacMillan. OCLC 480289.
• Steppler, Glenn A. (1983). "Roberts, Charles". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. V (1801–1820) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 27 September 2008.
• Sweetman, John (2004). "Brock, Sir Isaac (1769–1812)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/3468. Retrieved 17 July 2008. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
• Turner, Wesley B. (2011). Astonishing General: The Life and Legacy of Sir Isaac Brock. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1459700062.
• Tupper, Ferdinand Brock, ed. (1847). The Life and Correspondence of Major-General Sir Isaac Brock, K.B. (2nd ed.). London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co.
• Whitfield, Carol M.; Turner, Wesley B. (1985). "Sheaffe, Sir Roger Hale". In Halpenny, Francess G (ed.). Dictionary of Canadian Biography. Vol. VIII (1851–1860) (online ed.). University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
• Wilson, W.R. (2004). "The Earthly Possessions of Sir Isaac Brock". Historical Narratives of Early Canada. Retrieved 31 July 2008.

Further reading

See also: List of books about the War of 1812

• Benn, Carl (2003). The War of 1812. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-84176-466-3.
• Berton, Pierre (1991). The Capture of Detroit. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-1425-2.
• Berton, Pierre (1991). The Death of Isaac Brock. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-1426-0.
• Lamb, William K. (1962). The Hero of Upper Canada. Toronto: Rous and Mann. OCLC 4770927.
• Malcomson, Robert (1996). Burying General Brock: A History of Brock's Monuments. Niagara-on-the-Lake, ON: Friends of Fort George. ISBN 0-9699298-1-1.
• Published dispatches by Brock relating to the capture of Fort Detroit. "No. 16653". The London Gazette. 6 October 1812. pp. 2011–2014.

External links

• Information on Isaac Brock's family and genealogy
• The Friends of Fort George: Brock's Monument
• Brock University
• Works by Isaac Brock at Project Gutenberg
• Works by or about Isaac Brock at the Internet Archive
• Various Research on Isaac Brock Brock University Library Digital Repository